A new research report entitled The Daughter Penalty exposes some shocking inequalities in the gender balance between mothers and fathers in the United Kingdom. Economists Sonia Bhalotra, Damian Clarke, and Angelina Nazarova wrote this critical study. It draws on over a decade’s worth of data from the UK Longitudinal Household Survey. It explores how the birth of a firstborn child of a particular gender contributed to parents’ labor market outcomes, division of domestic labor, mental health, and relationship quality.
The findings indicate a troubling trend: British mothers face a significantly larger earnings penalty when their first child is a daughter compared to when their first child is a son. This qualitative longitudinal study sheds light on the ever-present tension between work and home that many women contend with. Perhaps equally important, it helps contextualize the societal implications of these dynamics.
Key Findings on Gender Dynamics
The final piece of this study uncovers a surprising truth. Mamas with girls have, on average, taken on more caregiving and housework burdens. Specifically, mothers spend 10 to 15 percentage points more time on childcare and household chores when their first child is a girl. This additional strain is associated with psychological distress, too.
Mothers of daughters, in particular, earn 26% less than fathers of daughters in the five years after having a child. Compared to a 42% penalty, the earnings penalty for mothers with sons is surprisingly small—only 3%. These disparities suggest that when people have a daughter, they experience a reversion to a more traditional division of labor at home. This cycle in turn can further entrench problematic gender norms.
“Our findings imply that girls and boys in the U.K. are, on average, growing up in different home environments, with girls growing up in households in which mothers are less likely to work, carry a larger burden of housework and childcare, exhibit higher mental stress, and report less gender-progressive views. This is a mechanism for the inter-generational transmission of gendered norms that has not previously been considered.” – Sonia Bhalotra
The impact of these discoveries reaches far past each family. They challenge us to think about how the gendering of roles in our society as caretakers affects parents’ burden and economic impact.
The Impact on Mental Health and Relationship Satisfaction
This new research examines the effect of firstborn child gender on parents’ mental health. It also looks at how this shapes their relationship satisfaction. Understanding prejudice Mothers who give birth to daughters experience a greater degree of mental stress than mothers who give birth to sons. This added stress may jeopardize relationships between partners because traditional dynamics tend to load more caregiving needs on mothers.
What’s more, the study finds that mothers of girls are generally less favorable to progressive gender norms. This first result uncovers a feedback loop rooted in sexist stereotypes about gender roles. Because these beliefs can outlive entire generations, they affect more than the families caught in their crosshairs—they affect all of us.
The implications for family dynamics are significant. Our families are up against a lot these days. By addressing the underlying causes of stress and inequality, they can promote positive relationships and help create equitable parenting solutions.
Addressing Gender Inequality
Bhalotra shines a light on some of the trends discovered through their research. These patterns might help explain why gender inequality continues to linger within our labor market. She points out that the study highlights a need for policies aimed at addressing these hidden gender dynamics within families, particularly around the time of childbirth.
“The patterns revealed in the findings may help explain the persistence of gender inequality in the labor market and a need for policies to address the hidden gender dynamics within families, especially around the time of childbirth.” – Sonia Bhalotra
Conversations around gender equity are rapidly advancing. This academic research brings us important and meaningful information on the impact of early family bonding on outcomes for society as a whole years later. The focus on fathers reminds us of the need for environments that support all parents, no matter what gender their child is.